Did Our Ancestors Live in Harmony with the Environment? :: Environment Environmental Pollution Preservation

Did Our Ancestors Live in Harmony with the Environment?It appears that humans be entering a stage in their collective lives in which we atomic number 18 beginning to see that we can quite easily alter our environments very drastically. many ar still divided about how they feel about this, feeling that things cannot possibly be as bad as the many doomsday-scenarios painted by both scientific and religious authorities. And there are others who are extremely worried about our collective affect on the environment, and fear that it may already be too late for humans, and the world will soon change sufficiently enough to make continued human survival on this artificial satellite very difficult. From both types of people, the question arises, Was there ever a time when humans lived in a way that was more or less in harmony with the environment? A key element in this discussion is the use of technology, loosely defined as anything outside of natural biological functions that is manipula ted and utilise to obtain an objective. To search for a time when our ancestors might have lived more environmentally consciously, one needs evidence, and in this case, it is generally thought that the only solid evidence to be found is through fossils of things created and used by these people of so long ago. But how far back in time are we talking about? And is there any other kind of evidence that might shed a bit of light on how people lived in those times? It is generally acknowledged that starting with our ancestor Homo erectus, humans began to use their hands to make tools (Ponting, 18). This knowledge is based on dating techniques of archaeologic findings such as skeletons and early tools, and the rough estimate of the appearance of this tool-using human is around 2 million years ago. In case it is not obvious, that is a very long time. Even in the last 4000 years, the amount of change that human culture and society has undergone is enormous, and at least that much is his torically document by at least some cultures in varying intervals. But to jump all the way back to 2 million years involves a very far leap indeed. There is not much evidence that tells us anything about societies so far back in time. There are some bones and stones, but nothing that really breaks down all those thousands of years into any real understanding of the societies of that era.

Philippine History :: Asian Asia History

Philippine HistorySpanish Colony 1565 - 1898Ferdinand Magellan set out from Spain in 1519 on the offshoot voyage to circumnavigate the globe with five ships and a complement of 264 crew. Three years later in 1522, only the one ship, the Victoria, returned to Spain with 18 men. The Philippines were the death of Magellan. The pilgrimage sighted the island of Samar on March 16, 1521. Magellan was welcomed by 2 Rajas, Kolambu and Siagu. He named the islands the Archipelago of San Lazaro, erected a cross and claimed the lands for Spain. The friendly Rajas took Magellan to Cebu to meet Raja Humabon. Humabon and 800 Cebuanos were baptized as Christians. Magellan agreed to abet Raja Humabon put down Lapu-Lapu, a rebellious datu on the nearby island of Mactan. In a battle between Spanish soldiers and Lapu-Lapus warriors, Magellan was killed on April 27, 1521. Disputes over women caused traffic between Raja Humabon and the remaining Spaniards to deteriorate. The Cebuanos killed 27 Spaniar ds in a skirmish and the Spaniards, deciding to resume their explorations, departed Cebu. For all its losses, the voyage was a huge pecuniary success. The Victorias 26 ton cargo of cloves sold for 41,000 ducats. This returned the 20,000 ducats the venture had cost plus a 105 percent profit. Four more expeditions followed between 1525 and 1542. The commander of the quaternary expedition, Ruy Lopez de Villalobos, named the islands after Philip, heir to the Spanish throne (r. Philip II 1556-1598). The Philippines was not formally organized as a Spanish colony until 1565 when Philip II appointed Miguel Lopez de Legazpi the premiere Governor-General. Legazpi selected Manila for the capital of the colony in 1571 because of its fine natural harbour and the rich lands surrounding the city that could supply it with produce. The Spanish did not develop the cover potential of the Philippines agricultural or mineral resources. The colony was administered from Mexico and its commerce centere d on the galleon trade between Canton and Acapulco in which Manila functioned secondarily as an entrepot. Smaller Chinese junks brought silk and porcelain from Canton to Manila where the cargoes were re-loaded on galleons bound for Acapulco and the Spanish colonies in the Americas. The Chinese goods were paid for in Mexican silver. Spanish rule had two lasting effects on Philippine society the near universal conversion of the population to Roman Catholicism and the creation of a landed elite.

The Humanistic View :: essays research papers

During the spiritual rebirth, humanism was a philosophy that was characterized by its blending of the concern of the history and actions of all human beings, and their influence in the world, with religious duty. Prior to renaissance calculateing, medieval Europe considered life to be sinful and should despised, and that people should only be concerned astir(predicate) their duty to God.Writers of the renaissance time period expressed their opinions about human nature and humans role in the universe through their writings. Alberti, whose work includes, On the Family, emphases the importants of self-worth and education. He writes, If one wishes to gain praise and fame, he must abhor idleness and laziness and oppose them as deadly foes. Basically Alberti says, is that if a person goes about their everyday life without the desire for education, therefore, that person is useless to their community.Bruni, Castiglione, and Pico take humanism a step further. Un ilk Alberti, they stres s the importants of self-appearance. They believe men should act like a gentlemen, speak softly and be stern with their words, but also at the same time be war ready. From the Book of the Courtier, Castiglione writes, where of I think the first should be to handle every sort of weapon well on foot and on horse, understand the advantages of each, and especially to be familiar with those weapons that ar ordinary used among gentleman, what he is saying is that a man during this time should be skilled to fight and he should also know his weapons. For a woman, basically its the same social function as a man, with two exceptions. The first exception is that if a woman, who is out in public, and engaged in a conversion she knows nothing about, for her sake she should not comment on anything. And the second exception is that if a woman when speaking, should be very careful not to stage how smart she is or how she may have had a better up bringing than a man.Dante and the humanist have m any things in common much(prenominal) as they both like the classic styles of writing from ancient Greece and Rome, they both have praised the importants of a higher education in their works. But the only thing I see Dante differing from the humanist is the focus of God in their life. , Dantes relationship with God is evident in his writing, which portrays the experience of a deeply committed Christian.

Fairies: Beauty or Contentment? :: English Literature

Fairies Beauty or Contentment?Fairies- like witches- were widely accepted as real in the Elizabethanera. The witches in Macbeth becalm stir debate over whether theyinitiated Macbeths crimes or simply anticipated then. What role doyou think the fairies remove in A summer solstice wickednesss Dream? Are theysimply a theatrical device to create wonder and beauty on stage or dothe fairies have a greater significance? How does Shakespeare usethem?In correlation to Shakespeares Macbeth, the role of the witchesproduces a direct connotation with the role of the fairies in AMidsummer Nights Dream. The philosophical perception of fate iscarried doneout both the dramas, enacting to drive the plotforward.In A Midsummer Nights Dream, Shakespeare uses the fairies to draw off amagical setting, symbolizing beauty, love and contentment. Thesesymbols form the basis of the play in context to the plot for thereason that these symbols drive the plot to come secure circle by the 5thAct. However, the magical setting portrays Shakespeares intent ofhaving the interaction between the two worlds hence the combinationis what formulates the plots complications whilst further proving thedrama to be a romantic comedy. In addition, A Midsummer Nights Dreamrevolves around the themes of love and marriage thus the implicationof fairies adds to the emotions of content through possessing amagical and joyous touch. Lastly, in contrast to the witches inMacbeth, the fairies dont seem to possess an evil side, hencesignifying the love and romance that surrounds the play. On thisbasis, Shakespeare uses the fairies to create an ambiance ofaffection as their wits disregard the play to be more comedic thantragic. Nonetheless, Shakespeare connects the fairies to comedy withinthe play for the fact that the characters are in a dream world whichfrustrated lovers find happiness against all odds through the juice ofa tree and further lovers suicides can be laughed at because they arepart of badly told tale. In context to the play, the fairies significance is slenderly vital forthe reason that their actions and decisions determine the course ofthe play. Furthermore, the opening scene is somewhat significant forthe reason that it tells the reader the play is a fairy story, thusthe role of the fairies is then imperative to some extent. And thenthe moon, like to a currency bow new bent in heaven, shall behold thenight implies the notion of a once upon a time story, hence being amagical tale. Secondly, in correlation to the notion of fate thatpersists within the real world is determined through the magicaldroplets of the fairies, hence causing complications and the structure

Black Panther Party Essay -- Politics Race

The Black puma PartyMy survey paper for Assign handst 4 is on the Black jaguar Party. I will argue the rise and the fall of the Black Panther Party and how Huey Newton and Bobby Seale met. I will also discuss some of the goals of the Black Panther Party, the good the party did for the black and poor communities. I will also discuss what they hoped to achieve from their move manpowert.Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party (BPP) in Oakland, California in 1966. The original name of the Black Panther Party was the Black Panther Party for Self- defending team. Huey Newton was illiterate when he graduated from high school. Newton taught himself how to read. Seale had served in the Air Force. Newton and Seale met while both were attending Merritt junior College in 1965. After Newton attended Merritt Junior College he study law at the San Francisco School of Law. At Merritt Junior College they organized a Soul Students Advisory Council. This Council was the first sort to demand that African-American studies be included in the college curriculum. The two men split with the council when Newton and Seale wanted to bring a squad of Black youths on campus to perform drills in commemoration of Malcolm Xs birthday the year after his death. This is when they formed the Black Panther Party. Newton was the Partys Defense Minister and Seale was the Chairman. The Black Panther Party type, the panther, was adopted from an independent political party established by residents in L knowledgedes County, Alabama a year earlier. The symbol was chosen because the panther is a powerful image.To achieve their goals, Newton and Seale had a ten-point platform that demanded full employment, exemption of black men from the military and an end to patrol brutality among other things. The last point, point number ten was a summary of all of the other points. One of the main goals was to protect Black citizens against law brutality. Their message was self-defense. Th e Party originally preached violent revolution as the only means of achieving black liberation. The party called on blacks to arm themselves for the liberation struggle. Huey Newton studied law and spoke up when the police violated the civil rights of Black people. He made sure the search warrants were legal. The Black Panther Party had their own patrols to monitor the activities of the police in Black nei... ...n leader was shot to death while standing in the doorway of his home. The murder has never been solved.The Black Panther Party Ten-Point System1. We want freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our Black community.2. We want the full employment of our people.3. We want an end to robbery by the capitalist of our black communities.4. We want decent housing, fit shelter of human beings.5. We want education for our people that expose the true nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our true history and our role in the present daysociety.6. We want all Black men to be exempt from military service.7. We want an immediate end to police brutality and murder of Black people.8. We want freedom for all Black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails.9. We want all Black people when brought to trial to be tried in a court by a panel of their peer group or people from their Black communities, as defined by the Constitution of the United States.10. We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice, and peace.

Black Panther Party Essay -- Politics Race

The smuggled Panther c tout ensembleerMy survey paper for Assignment 4 is on the Black Panther Party. I willing discuss the rise and the fall of the Black Panther Party and how Huey Newton and Bobby Seale met. I will also discuss some of the goals of the Black Panther Party, the level-headed the party did for the black and poor communities. I will also discuss what they hoped to achieve from their movement.Huey Newton and Bobby Seale founded the Black Panther Party (BPP) in Oakland, California in 1966. The original name of the Black Panther Party was the Black Panther Party for Self-Defense. Huey Newton was illiterate when he graduated from high school. Newton taught himself how to read. Seale had served in the Air Force. Newton and Seale met while both were attending Merritt Junior College in 1965. After Newton attended Merritt Junior College he studied law at the San Francisco School of Law. At Merritt Junior College they organized a Soul Students Advisory Council. This Counci l was the first group to demand that African-American studies be include in the college curriculum. The two men split with the council when Newton and Seale deprivationed to bring a squad of Black youths on campus to perform drills in commemoration of Malcolm Xs birthday the year after his death. This is when they formed the Black Panther Party. Newton was the Partys Defense Minister and Seale was the Chairman. The Black Panther Party symbol, the panther, was adopted from an independent political party established by residents in Lowndes County, Alabama a year earlier. The symbol was chosen because the panther is a reigning image.To achieve their goals, Newton and Seale had a ten- bear down platform that demanded full employment, exemption of black men from the military and an end to natural law brutality among other things. The last point, point number ten was a summary of all of the other points. One of the main goals was to protect Black citizens against police brutality. Thei r message was self-defense. The Party originally preached ruby revolution as the only means of achieving black liberation. The party called on blacks to arm themselves for the liberation struggle. Huey Newton studied law and spoke up when the police violated the civil rights of Black concourse. He made sure the search warrants were legal. The Black Panther Party had their own patrols to monitor the activities of the police in Black nei... ...n leader was shot to death while standing in the doorway of his home. The murder has never been solved.The Black Panther Party Ten-Point System1. We destiny freedom. We want power to determine the destiny of our Black community.2. We want the full employment of our people.3. We want an end to robbery by the capitalist of our black communities.4. We want suitable housing, fit shelter of human beings.5. We want education for our people that expose the rightful(a) nature of this decadent American society. We want education that teaches us our true history and our true history and our role in the present daysociety.6. We want all Black men to be exempt from military service.7. We want an immediate end to police brutality and murder of Black people.8. We want freedom for all Black men held in federal, state, county and city prisons and jails.9. We want all Black people when brought to trial to be tried in a court by a jury of their peer group or people from their Black communities, as defined by the Constitution of the United States.10. We want land, bread, housing, education, clothing, justice, and peace.

Economics Essay

Poverty can be billhookd on different scales with many ways like through a Lorenz curve, a graph of the cumulative distribution function of a probability distribution which is used in representing income distribution. Lorenz curve shows distribution of assets and is considered a measure of social inequality. Gini coefficient can also be used in measuring poverty. Gini coefficient measures statistical dispersion and is usually used in measuring inequality of income distribution. heights Gini coefficient means or indicates that there is high unequal distribution observed while a lower Gini coefficient indicates that there is a high equal income distribution. spate benefits a nation in many ways. In the law of comparative advantage partners are allowed to benefit from specializing in producing services and goods they make best. When producers make goods in which they are comparably skilled or instruct at, those goods increase in quality and number.Trade also improves suitability in allocation of resources. It brings goods and services to others who comfort them. Trade allows consumers to have more efficient production methods. Large productions are good in reducing product costs. Lower production costs whitethorn lead to much cheaper services and goods which may increase living standards. Human capital, one of the factors of production which refers to the reserve of technical knowledge and productive skills found in labor.It is one of the factors which influence an economic system like in market economy. An example to this is the market economy in the U. S. in which workers acquire knowledge and skills. study and education increases human capital which make the worker more precious to their employers. Today, software developers and computer programmers are in demand making them more trained and skilled resulting to a high human capital and this in turn may benefit the economic system that the U. S. has.

Learning Theory

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation, search This article demand additional citations for verification. enthral help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008) This article may contain original research. ravish improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting simply of original research may be removed. More details may be avai science laboratoryle on the communion page. (January 2010)In psychological science and education, tuition is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and milieual influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or fashioning changes in singles association, skills, values, and world takes (Illeris, 2000 Ormorod, 1995). information as a process focuses on what happens when the discipline takes shopping center. Explanations of what happens constitute culture theories. A culture theory is an attempt to describe how deal and animals learn, in that respectby service us determine the inherently complex process of scholarship.Learning theories require two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with language and a conceptual fashion model for interpreting the examples of encyclopedism that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our worry to those variables that argon crucial in finding solutions. There ar three main categories or philosophical frameworks under which study theories release deportmentism, cognitivism, and constructivism. behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning.Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the savant actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts. Contents hide 1 Behaviorism 2 Cognitivism 3 Constructivism 4 Informal and post-modern theories 5 Other learning theories 6 Criticism 7 Other interests 8 See likewise 9 Notes 10 External links edit Behaviorism principal(prenominal) article Behaviorism Behaviorism as a theory was primarily highly-developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull.What characterizes these investigators are their underlying assumptions ab aside the process of learning. In essence, three staple fiber assumptions are held to be true. original research? First, learning is manifested by a change in behavior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how fold in age two events must(prenominal) be for a bond to be formed) and keep (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through cond itioning.There are two types of possible conditioning 1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex reply to stimulus as in the case of Pavlovs Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he truism that the dogs drooled with discover the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva pipe down dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov thus tried to figure out how these phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs knowing to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. 2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavio r by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operative conditioning was developed by B. F. Skinner and is known as ingrained Behaviorism.The word operant refers to the way in which behavior operates on the environment. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not hit the booksed to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, behaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.Educational antenna shotes such as apply behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model. 1 edit Cognitivism Main article Cognitivism (psychology) The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a public ation in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns or else than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories.Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach (1) that the retentiveness governing body is an active form processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge take overs an important parting in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For example, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators workings under the cognitive theory.The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity the individ ual learner is more than key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize. Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeleys working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory.These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. citation needed Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age. edit Constructivism Main article Constructivism (learning theory) Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, learning involves constructing ones own knowledge from ones own exp eriences. Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism). Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity to the highest degree shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members(Driver et al. , 1994) Constructivism itself has some(prenominal) variations, such as Active learning, keep an eye ony learning, and knowledge building.Regardless of the variety, constructivism promotes a students free exploration within a given framework or structure. citation neededThe teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects o f constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, ascertain cognition, and reflective utilize and religious practice. edit Informal and post-modern theories Informal theories of education may attempt to break down the learning process in pursuit of practicalitycitation needed.One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Criticscitation needed believe that onerous to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learningcitation needed. Somewho? argue that learning is primarily self-regulated, and that the ideal learning situation is one dissimilar to the modern classroomcitation needed.Critics argue that students learning in isolation failcitation needed. edit Other learning theor ies Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes than general learning theories. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn. Connectivism is a recent theory of Networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections. Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in learning. edit Criticism Criticism of learning theories that underlie conventional educational practices claims there is no need for such a theory.The attempt to comprehend the process of learning through theory construction has created more problems than it has solved. It moreover claims that in auberge to make up for the feeling of inadequacy in confronting a process that we dont genuinely comprehend, we label something learning and measure it. Then were comfortable, because at least then we have the feeling that we have a grasp on the problem. We dont really follow the process, but in lieu of a with child(p) un derstanding of whats firing on, we find something and say, Lets declare that to be learning, by consensus. This is basically what the entire educational system the world over has done quantify learning by disruption it up into measurable pieces-curricula, courses, hours, tests, and grades. The assumption is that psychologically one knows enough about the mind to identify aptitudes the accepted (knowledge-based) conception of learning identifies quaternity assumptions of the accepted view of learning that (some) one knows what ought to be learned by people, why it ought to be learned, how it ought to be learned, and by whom each thing ought to be learned.Together these assumptions are the lenses through which people have been socialized in our culture to judge whether learning is occurring or not and a further assumption is that once one knows aptitudes, one also knows how to track a person so he will in fact reach the goal that is being set out for him. The whole approach is the ultimate in pedagogical and psychological technology. The only trouble is hat it is humanly absurd. In this society, such a process is exceptionally subtle, because it involves an authoritarian approach within a free culture. By employing a variety of ruses the system produces a process which allows it to inhibit personal freedom without really feeling that this is what is freeing on. The person doesnt feel that something arbitrary is being done to himwhich is in fact what is happening. 23Learning TheoryFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation, search This article needs additional citations for verification. Please help improve this article by adding reliable references. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (April 2008) This article may contain original research. Please improve it by verifying the claims made and adding references. Statements consisting only of original research may be removed. More details may be available on the talk page. (January 20 10)In psychology and education, learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in ones knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2000 Ormorod, 1995). Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute learning theories. A learning theory is an attempt to describe how people and animals learn, thereby helping us understand the inherently complex process of learning.Learning theories have two chief values according to Hill (2002). One is in providing us with vocabulary and a conceptual framework for interpreting the examples of learning that we observe. The other is in suggesting where to look for solutions to practical problems. The theories do not give us solutions, but they do direct our attention to those variables that are crucial in finding solutions. There are three main catego ries or philosophical frameworks under which learning theories fall behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism. Behaviorism focuses only on the objectively observable aspects of learning.Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. And constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts. Contents hide 1 Behaviorism 2 Cognitivism 3 Constructivism 4 Informal and post-modern theories 5 Other learning theories 6 Criticism 7 Other interests 8 See also 9 Notes 10 External links edit Behaviorism Main article Behaviorism Behaviorism as a theory was primarily developed by B. F. Skinner. It loosely encompasses the work of people like Edward Thorndike, Tolman, Guthrie, and Hull.What characterizes these investigators are their underlying assumptions about the process of learning. In essence, three basic assumptions are held to be true. original research? First, learning is manifested by a change in be havior. Second, the environment shapes behavior. And third, the principles of contiguity (how close in time two events must be for a bond to be formed) and reinforcement (any means of increasing the likelihood that an event will be repeated) are central to explaining the learning process. For behaviorism, learning is the acquisition of new behavior through conditioning.There are two types of possible conditioning 1) Classical conditioning, where the behavior becomes a reflex response to stimulus as in the case of Pavlovs Dogs. Pavlov was interested in studying reflexes, when he saw that the dogs drooled without the proper stimulus. Although no food was in sight, their saliva still dribbled. It turned out that the dogs were reacting to lab coats. Every time the dogs were served food, the person who served the food was wearing a lab coat. Therefore, the dogs reacted as if food was on its way whenever they saw a lab coat.In a series of experiments, Pavlov then tried to figure out how t hese phenomena were linked. For example, he struck a bell when the dogs were fed. If the bell was sounded in close association with their meal, the dogs learned to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the mere sound of the bell, they responded by drooling. 2) Operant conditioning where there is reinforcement of the behavior by a reward or a punishment. The theory of operant conditioning was developed by B. F. Skinner and is known as Radical Behaviorism.The word operant refers to the way in which behavior operates on the environment. Briefly, a behavior may result either in reinforcement, which increases the likelihood of the behavior recurring, or punishment, which decreases the likelihood of the behavior recurring. It is important to note that, a punishment is not considered to be applicable if it does not result in the reduction of the behavior, and so the terms punishment and reinforcement are determined as a result of the actions. Within this framework, b ehaviorists are particularly interested in measurable changes in behavior.Educational approaches such as applied behavior analysis, curriculum based measurement, and direct instruction have emerged from this model. 1 edit Cognitivism Main article Cognitivism (psychology) The earliest challenge to the behaviorists came in a publication in 1929 by Bode, a gestalt psychologist. He criticized behaviorists for being too dependent on overt behavior to explain learning. Gestalt psychologists proposed looking at the patterns rather than isolated events. Gestalt views of learning have been incorporated into what have come to be labeled cognitive theories.Two key assumptions underlie this cognitive approach (1) that the memory system is an active organized processor of information and (2) that prior knowledge plays an important role in learning. Cognitive theories look beyond behavior to explain brain-based learning. Cognitivists consider how human memory works to promote learning. For exampl e, the physiological processes of sorting and encoding information and events into short term memory and long term memory are important to educators working under the cognitive theory.The major difference between gestaltists and behaviorists is the locus of control over the learning activity the individual learner is more key to gestaltists than the environment that behaviorists emphasize. Once memory theories like the Atkinson-Shiffrin memory model and Baddeleys working memory model were established as a theoretical framework in cognitive psychology, new cognitive frameworks of learning began to emerge during the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Today, researchers are concentrating on topics like cognitive load and information processing theory.These theories of learning play a role in influencing instructional design. citation needed Aspects of cognitivism can be found in learning how to learn, social role acquisition, intelligence, learning, and memory as related to age. edit Constructivism Main article Constructivism (learning theory) Constructivism views learning as a process in which the learner actively constructs or builds new ideas or concepts based upon current and past knowledge or experience. In other words, learning involves constructing ones own knowledge from ones own experiences. Constructivist learning, therefore, is a very personal endeavor, whereby internalized concepts, rules, and general principles may consequently be applied in a practical real-world context. This is also known as social constructivism (see social constructivism). Social constructivists posit that knowledge is constructed when individuals engage socially in talk and activity about shared problems or tasks. Learning is seen as the process by which individuals are introduced to a culture by more skilled members(Driver et al. , 1994) Constructivism itself has many variations, such as Active learning, discovery learning, and knowledge building.Regardless of the variety, constructivism pr omotes a students free exploration within a given framework or structure. citation neededThe teacher acts as a facilitator who encourages students to discover principles for themselves and to construct knowledge by working to solve realistic problems. Aspects of constructivism can be found in self-directed learning, transformational learning, experiential learning, situated cognition, and reflective practice and religious practice. edit Informal and post-modern theories Informal theories of education may attempt to break down the learning process in pursuit of practicalitycitation needed.One of these deals with whether learning should take place as a building of concepts toward an overall idea, or the understanding of the overall idea with the details filled in later. Criticscitation needed believe that trying to teach an overall idea without details (facts) is like trying to build a masonry structure without bricks Other concerns are the origins of the drive for learningcitation ne eded. Somewho? argue that learning is primarily self-regulated, and that the ideal learning situation is one dissimilar to the modern classroomcitation needed.Critics argue that students learning in isolation failcitation needed. edit Other learning theories Other learning theories have also been developed for more specific purposes than general learning theories. For example, andragogy is the art and science to help adults learn. Connectivism is a recent theory of Networked learning which focuses on learning as making connections. Multimedia learning theory focuses on principles for the effective use of multimedia in learning. edit Criticism Criticism of learning theories that underlie traditional educational practices claims there is no need for such a theory.The attempt to comprehend the process of learning through theory construction has created more problems than it has solved. It further claims that in order to make up for the feeling of inadequacy in confronting a process th at we dont really comprehend, we label something learning and measure it. Then were comfortable, because at least then we have the feeling that we have a grasp on the problem. We dont really follow the process, but in lieu of a profound understanding of whats going on, we find something and say, Lets declare that to be learning, by consensus. This is basically what the entire educational system the world over has done quantify learning by breaking it up into measurable pieces-curricula, courses, hours, tests, and grades. The assumption is that psychologically one knows enough about the mind to identify aptitudes the accepted (knowledge-based) conception of learning identifies four assumptions of the accepted view of learning that (some) one knows what ought to be learned by people, why it ought to be learned, how it ought to be learned, and by whom each thing ought to be learned.Together these assumptions are the lenses through which people have been socialized in our culture to jud ge whether learning is occurring or not and a further assumption is that once one knows aptitudes, one also knows how to track a person so he will in fact reach the goal that is being set out for him. The whole approach is the ultimate in pedagogical and psychological technology. The only trouble is hat it is humanly absurd. In this society, such a process is exceptionally subtle, because it involves an authoritarian approach within a free culture. By employing a variety of ruses the system produces a process which allows it to inhibit personal freedom without really feeling that this is what is going on. The person doesnt feel that something arbitrary is being done to himwhich is in fact what is happening. 23

Operation Research Essay

INTRODUCTION & HISTORY OF OPERATIONAL RESEARCH running(a) research came into existence in 1885 when Frederick W. Taylor emphasised the application of scientific depth psychology to methods of production. The name (OR) probably came from a programme under taken by Great Britain during world war2, research in military operations. After the triumph of OR in military operations, it quickly spread to all phases of Industry and Government. By 1951, OR had take place as a distinct scientific discipline in the United States. Hence it is said that Or is the art of winning war without actually fighting it.OPERATIONAL RESEARCH IN INDIAIn India OR society founded in 1959, as well as became a member of International Federation of OR Societies in 1959. Now OR techniques are used in approximately all the walks of our life and Or is emerging as an interdisciplinary areas of knowledge that can make contribution to the solution of the problems in diversified areas of interest. There is alike much impact of OR in economics, management, engineering and other social & behaviour sciences.DEFINITION OF OPERATION RESEARCH* Operational research is the art of full-grown bad answers to problems which otherwise have worse answers. T.L. SAATY * Operational research is the scientific approach to problem solving for executive management. H.M. WAGNER * Operational Research (OR) is the use of ripe analytical techniques to improve finish making. It is sometimes known as operations Research, Management Science or Industrial Engineering. People with skills in OR go over jobs in conclusiveness support, business analytics, marketing analysis and logistics planning as well as jobs with OR in thetitle.ACKOFF & SASIENINATURE OF OPERATIONAL RESEARCHOperational Research involves research on (military) operations. This indicates the approach as well as the area of applications of the field. Thus it is an approach to problems of how to coordinate and control the operations or activities within an organisation. In order to run an organisation effectively as a whole the problem that arises frequently is coordination among the conflicting goal of its various functional departments. permits consider the problem of the stocks of finished goods. The various departments of the organisation may like to handle this problem differently. * To the marketing department, stock of large potpourri of products is a means of supplying the companys customers with what they want and where they want it. Clearly the fully stocked ware- house is of prime importance to the company.* The production department argues for eagle-eyed production runs preferably on a smaller product range, particularly if there is a significant time loss when production switched from one variety to another. * On the other hand, finance department sees stocks kept as capital tied up unproductively and argues strongly for their reduction. * Finally the personnel department sees large advantage in labour relations i f there is a steady level of production leading to steady employment. To optimise the whole system, the decision manufacturing business must decide the best polity keeping in view the relative importance of objectives and validity of conflicting claims of various departments from the perspective of the whole organisation.Operations research thus helps to seek the optimal solution to a problem and not merely one which gives better solutions than the one currently in use. The decision taken by the decision maker may not be acceptable to every department but it should be optimal for the organisation as a whole or at least for a large portion of the total organisation. In order to obtain such type of solution, the decision maker must follow the effects and interactions of a particular decision.APPLICATIONS OF OPERATIOANL RESEARCHA. ACCOUNTING* Cash flow & fund flow plannings.* Credit policy analysis.* Planning of delinquent account strategy.B. CONSTRUCTION* Allocation of resources to p rojects.* Determination and deployment of proper work forces.* Project scheduling, monitoring and control.C. FACILITIES PLANNING* Factory size and location decision.* infirmary planning.* International logistics systems design.* Estimation of number of facilities required.* Transportation loading and unloading.* Warehouse location decision.D. FINANCE* Dividend policy decision.* Investment decision.* Portfolio analysis.E. MANUFACTURING* Inventory control.* Projection marketing balance.* return scheduling.* Production smoothing.F. MARKETING* Advertising budget allocation.* Product introduction timing.* Selection of product mix.* Customers preferences.G. ORGANISATION BEHAVIOUR* Personnel selection & planning.* Scheduling of learning programs.* Skills balancing.* Recruitment of Employees.H. PURCHASING* Material transfers.* Optimal buying.* Optimal reordering.I. RESEARCH & DEVELOPMENT* Control of R&D projects.* Product introduction planning.CONCLUSIONOperational research, also known as operations research, is an interdisciplinary branch of applied mathematics and formal science that uses advanced analytical methods such as mathematical modelling, statistical analysis, and mathematical optimization to arrive at optimal or near-optimal.

Universalism vs. Particularism

Universalism vs. Particularism is a concept forwarded by Fons Trompenaars, a Dutch author. Basically, this dimension asks if which is more important to you, rules or kinships. The Universalist, or rule-based, approach is roughly What is reasoned and right can be defined and ALWAYS applies. In positionicularistic cultures, far greater attention is given to the obligations of relationships and unique circumstances. Universalism vs. Particularism indicates how a society applies rules of morality and ethics. In a Universal society such as the U. S. , rules and contracts ar developed which can apply in any situation.For example, take the case of toilsome to cross the street at the red light. In a very rule-based society like the U. S. , you will still be frowned at even if in that respect is no traffic. It tends to imply equality in the sense that all persons, or citizens, falling under the rule should be treated the same. On the contrary, in Asiatic societies like Taiwan, where particularist judgments focus on the exceptional nature of circumstances, it is believably to be OK with one if it is his/her brothers or friends that violate the traffic rule. These people are non citizens, but their friends or brothers.This difference probably explains why there have been difficulties in implementing a judicial system that is credible in our coun test. Strong universalist cultures use the court to mediate conflicts. The more universal a country is the greater is the need to protect the truth. International operating businesses think more likely in an universalistic way. When universalistic business people agree to a contract relating to a high value deal there are ever lawyers involved to assure that every detail is correctly mentioned and protected by a paragraph.In case one party would break a part of the committed deal it is possible to draw the consequences and sue the counterpart. In particularisticic cultures legal contracts dont only keep their promises something is written down on paper. more than that they self-assurance, rely and believe in the business relationship which was build up in the time before the contract was discussed. Chinese business people trust very much on relationships between the partners and strict regulations/formulations would probably offend/insult the partner because they would get the idea that they arent trustful and are cheater.The greatness of relationships again solidity be carefully considered and taken into account especially from universalistic cultures when dealing with particularistic cultures. Chinese try to keep the contracts vague and not too tied. It might happen that Chinese business people will still try to negotiate afterwards even the contract was already subscribe/closed and agreed from all sites. In negotiations Chinese will spend a lot of time in building up a relationship with their business partners so the actual negotiation will be at the end of the meeting time.While Americans dealing with Chinese, Americans often try to close deals as fast as possible. But as a result of the Chinese way to make deals the Americans might commit more advantages than first thought only if to rush forward and close a deal. This can be an advantage for particularistic cultures. Universalist cultures focus normally more on rules than on relationships. For interpreter American employees compete hard for better job positions and to climb up in the hierarchy and earn more money.They do this without caring for colleagues and the relationship with them. In comparison, particularistic cultures like China focus heavily on relationships. When working with/managing particularistic, universalists should build informal networks and create private understandings as well as they should try to look for fairness in doing business by treating and looking on cases each as a specific one. Particularistic cultures avoid rigid or standardized systems to manage across cultures.They rather prefe r to leave some room for changes which might occur in the future process. Some stereotypes say that Germans are talented to build infrastructure and Americans are excellent to develop and invent new products/ideas. When markets became more individual and specific the USA came into trouble with their way of hoi polloi production and mass marketing. Especially in competition with particularistic countries likes France who is orientated on individual and customized products.